Conversational Implicature in Arabic
Activities (Lesson Plans)
ACADEMIC RESOURCES ON RELIGIOUS-BASED EXPRESSIONS IN ARABIC
Resources in this section curated by: Bushra Elfandi
INSHA’ALLAH
Al-Rawafi, A. A. A., & Gunawan, W. (2019, April). The illocutionary speech acts of Insha’allah: Pragmatic analysis of teachers talks in daily school activities. In 3rd Asian Education Symposium (AES 2018) (pp. 522-528). Atlantis Press. DOI: 10.2991/aes-18.2019.117
In this study, researchers examined the usage of “Insha’Allah” by teachers on Telegram school group chats interacting with students, colleagues, and their principal on topics such as planning, asking for permission, asking for help and reporting information. The researchers discuss how the locutionary force of the expression can be traced back to its heavy presence in the Quran, where for instance in Verses 23-24, Surah Al-Kahf says “And never say of anything, “I will definitely do this tomorrow (23), without adding, ‘if Allah so wills!’.... (24)”. In their study they examined what illocutionary forces were held when the participants used the expression Insha’Allah. It was found that Insha’Allah was used across four illocutionary force domains: commissives (promising or planning), assertives (suggesting, boasting, concluding, confirming), directives (ordering), expressives (thanking and apologizing). Additionally, the study revealed that the expression was also utilized as a strategy of saving face, where a speaker is not committed or interested in the interlocutors' request, invitation, or offer; Insha’Allah is used as a mitigator.
Clift, R., & Helani, F. (2010). Inshallah: Religious invocations in Arabic topic transition. Language in Society, 39(3), 357-382. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047404510000199
This article discusses the widespread usage of religious expression in the Arabic language, and how in communicative discourse the name of “Allah” is found in various expressions either explicitly or implicitly. Through a corpus analysis study of Levantine Arabic, researchers examined how the phrase Insha’Allah is presented sequentially in a conversation. It was found that the phrase can act as an invocation, a topic closure or a reciprocal expression.
Farghal, M. (1995). The pragmatics of’inšāllah in Jordanian Arabic. Multilingua, 14(3), 253-270. https://doi.org/10.1515/mult.1995.14.3.253
Farghal discusses how the expression Insha’Allah is considered to be pragmatically multi-purposeful, where it is present in diverse contexts. He states that its analysis of usage should not be viewed as an independent speech formula. While the focus of this study was to examine the pragmatics of Insha’Allah within the Jordanian Arabic dialect, other dialects of Arabic, such as Iraqi, Libyan and Saudi Arabic were also examined.
Insha’Allah has held a semantic meaning of adhering to the might of God when one makes plans for the future and acknowledges that it is only under God’s will that the occurrence of the future event will happen. However, the expression has seen various pragmatic shifts across Arabic dialects. For instance, in Iraqi, Libyan, and Saudi Arabic, the expression, when utilized with a rise in intonation, demonstrates expressions of unwillingness or doubts in fulfillment of a plan or event. However, when the same expression is utilized with a rise-fall in intonation, it serves as a confirmation of action.
This signifies the importance of including pronunciation instruction in the contexts of planning and making promises. The author further identifies four illocutionary forces that the expression is used in: directives (asking, ordering, commanding, ordering, or inviting), commissives (promising, offering, or daring), assertives (affirming, believing, denying or concluding) and expressives (hoping, apologizing, or thanking).
Nazzal, A. (2005). The pragmatic functions of the recitation of Qur’anic verses by Muslims in their oral genre: The case of Insha’Allah,‘God’s willing’. Pragmatics, 15(2-3), 251-273. https://doi.org/10.1075/prag.15.2-3.05naz
The author of this study investigates the usage of Insha’Allah by individuals of the Islamic faith who speak Arabic. The expression appears to be closely tied to one’s linguistic, religious and cultural identity. It holds various pragmatic meanings. With its locutionary meaning being “In God’s will,” speakers utilize it to not only deflect their responsibility of commitments into God’s hands, but to also maintain harmony with other individuals. Instead of flatly rejecting an individual’s request, suggestion or invitation, Insha’Allah is used to lessen the rejection.
Zubay, B. (2011). Insh’Allah. Mercer Street, 2018-2023. [Essay, New York University]. https://cas.nyu.edu/content/dam/nyu-as/casEWP/documents/zubayinsh06.pdf
The author of this essay discusses the experiences of a learner in Egypt. They state how coming from America, a culture that places huge emphasis on time and planning, Insha’Allah seemed unsettling to hear and say. In Egyptian culture, there is a ‘reverence to the present moment’, where people do not rush to appointments, for instance, and Insha’Allah reflects the belief that the future is indeed unknown.
The author also explains the relevance of the word Al-hamudlilah. In English, when a person is asked “how are you,” one response could be “I am good, thanks.” Similarly, in Arabic the word Al-hamudlilah is part of a response to a question, such as in “tamam, Al-hamudlilah,” or as in “kwayiss, Al-hamudlilah.” In English, the word thanks is directed towards thanking the person for inquiring. However, in Arabic the word Al-hamudlilah serves as thanking God and holds the locutionary meaning “All praise and glory to God.”
MASHA’ALLAH
Algharabali, N., & Taqi, H. (2020). “Say Mashallah!” Investigating sociolinguistic manifestations of the evil eye in Kuwait. International Journal of Language and Culture, 7(2), 147-163. https://doi.org/10.1075/ijolc.20036.alg
This article discusses the presence of the ‘evil eye’ belief on social media. It is paradoxical in this context because people often present a good self-image of themselves online, yet there is a paranoia of envy due to cultural or religious beliefs. To study this phenomenon, the researchers investigated the methods that Kuwaiti people use to ward off the evil eye on social media. It was found that approximately 35% of participants reported that they accompany a social media post that shows their achievements, wealth or property with the phrase Masha’Allah, urging commenters to state so in order to avert the evil eye. 30% of participants recite or input Quranic verses in their social media posts. Furthermore, 8% of participants reported that they write sarcastic descriptions, such as “I am now poor,” deflecting the fortune that they show on social media.
al-Rojaie, Y. I. (2021). The pragmatic functions of religious expressions in Najdi Arabic. Saudi Journal of Language Studies, 1(1), 3-25. https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/SJLS-03-2021-0006/full/html
In this study, researchers analyzed the pragmatic functions of religious-based expressions in Najdi Arabic, which is spoken in Central Saudi Arabia. Through a corpus study, they found that the expressions used in daily discourse held multifunctional purposes that ranged from ending a conversation, hedging, sarcasm, invoking protection from the evil eye, to demonstrating solidarity. In the case of Masha’Allah, researchers found that it is highly present in the context of compliments to avert the evil eye. When speakers forget to use the expression, they are often reminded by the interlocutor through expressions such as “Say Masha’Allah,” or “Mention the name of Allah,” demonstrating a potential face-threat. Additionally, the phrase is present in the contexts of humor and sarcasm.
Alqarni, M. (2020). Mock impoliteness in Saudi Arabia: Evil eye expressive and responsive strategies. Journal of Pragmatics, 167, 4-19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2020.05.001
This author discusses the belief in the evil eye “عين الحسد” in Saudi Arabia, where similarly across Arabic and Islamic cultures, it is driven by the idea that the “eye of the envious” can lead to another person’s destruction of wealth, health, personal achievements, and can even lead to death. It is important for learners to understand the significance of the ‘evil eye’ belief, as compliments without a protective invocation of “masha’Allah” can lead to a communication breakdown and misinterpretations. Without including or prefacing a compliment with “masha’Allah,” it is discussed that the compliment given by the speaker can be seen as a face-threatening act.
The researchers also examined compliment response strategies when the name of God was not invoked. They found that a common response strategy by the interlocutor was the use of face-saving religious invocations such as قول ما شاء الله “Say Masha’Allah” in order to avert the eye of envy. Another common response strategy involved using religious face-threatening phrases, such as “May Allah subdue you”.
Al-Qinai, J. B. (2011). Translating phatic expressions. Pragmatics. Quarterly Publication of the International Pragmatics Association (IPrA), 21(1), 23-39. https://doi.org/10.1075/prag.21.1.02qin
Al-Qinai discusses the challenges of translating phatic expressions between Arabic and English owing to their cultural specificity and their ability to encode subtle combinations of degrees of social distance, solidarity, markedness, etc. Overtranslation of more extended Arabic phatic expressions can give the false impression that Arabic is particularly ‘flowery’.
Additionally, sociopragmatic elements influence the meaning of words like insha’Allah, which depend on the intimacy or difference in status between speakers. Insha’Allah might be more committal when said to a superior as opposed to an equal or inferior in status. Older speakers tend to use some God-phrase phatic expressions more than younger speakers.
The author contrasts conventional phrases across the two languages, such as saying grace in English and saying bismillah before a meal and alhamdulillah at the end in Arabic. The author also makes reference to other issues of variability and nuance, such as some phrases being used sarcastically, marked forms indicating particular meanings, and cultural norms around interaction.
Bouchara, A. (2015). The role of religion in shaping politeness in Moroccan Arabic: The case of the speech act of greeting and its place in intercultural understanding and misunderstanding. Journal of Politeness Research, 11(1), 71-98. https://doi.org/10.1515/pr-2015-0004
Bouchara considers the prominent role of Moroccan Arabic religious phrases in various face needs in interaction. Phrases involving God can serve a variety of functions, such as showing sincerity in offering something, showing appreciation, or even marking cultural identity. Hamdulah after a burp, for example, can express appreciation of the food. The author includes a chart detailing a dozen such expressions and helpful commentary on the religious ideas and cultural values.
Bouchara also compares Arabic and German pragmatic norms through discourse analysis. For example, the literally-translated greeting “How’s life treating you?” is perceived as a face-threatening question about the German speaker’s personal life. This interaction exemplifies the importance of conventionalized exchanges for comfortable interaction and how such phrases may reflect pragmatic norms.
De Ruiter, J. J., & Farrag Attwa, M. (2021). Allah, Allah, Allah: The Role of God in the Arab Version of The Voice. Religions, 12(6), 412. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12060412
This study looks at the occurrences and uses of phrases relating to God in the Arabic version of “The Voice''. It includes a variety of expressions, from the frequent and general alhamdulillah ‘praise God’ (53 times), to the more contextually restricted Allah yisallimak ‘May God keep you safe’ (1 time). Different pragmatic functions of the phrases are analyzed, such as the repeated use of Allah or mashallah to show praise, or inshallah to express wishes. Although the study doesn’t look at every variation in use of each word, the examples can be helpful to show contextualized use to learners. Additionally, the study looked at the use of non-religious phrases ahsant and bravo ‘well done’ in comparison to God-phrase equivalents such as mashallah.
Dendenne, B. (2021). Complimenting on-the-go: Features from colloquial Algerian Arabic. Journal of Pragmatics, 172, 270-287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2020.11.013
This article discusses compliments in Algerian Arabic, where great caution is placed towards the evil and envious eye. Thus the popularity of expressions such as allah, rabbi ybaerk, allahuma salli alnabii, and Masha’Allah being the most prevalent. Such religious expressions in Arabic are considered routine politeness formulas, allowing the complimenter to point out good values in the complemented person with ease.
Ferguson, C. A. (1983). God-wishes in Syrian Arabic. Mediterranean Language Review, 1, 65-83. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.13173/medilangrevi.1.1983.0065
In this paper, Ferguson examines the functions of the class of God-wish expression in Syrian Arabic. These typically take forms of ‘Allah y–ak’ and occur in common exchanges, such as begging, thanking, and health inquiries. They often occur in root-echo pairs with a set response. The predictability of many of the formulas warrant an inclusion of their description within a grammar of the language, instead of simply being individually described in a dictionary. One typical situation of formula use is before and after a crisis/problem. Beforehand, one would use inshaallah + a God-wish (i.e. Inshaallah bislame) and afterwards alhamdulla + a formula (i.e. Alhamdulla bislame).
Ferguson also discusses ritualized inquiries about one’s health, i.e. “how are you?” expressions. These are typically responded to with the God-expression alhamdulla ‘thank God’ + an optional indicator of wellness (‘mabsut’, ‘bixer’, etc). Alternatively, one may respond with a God-wish directed back at the asker: Allah ysallmak ‘May God preserve you’. In contrast to English, Arabic exchanges of ‘How are you?’ might be repeated in the conversation.
Migdadi, F., Badarneh, M. A., & Momani, K. (2010). Divine will and its extensions: Communicative functions of maašaallah in colloquial Jordanian Arabic. Communication Monographs, 77(4), 480-499. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2010.502539
This study explores the pragmatics of the religious-based expression masha’Allah - “What God wishes (has and will come true)” - in Jordanian Arabic. The expression is connected to Islamic beliefs that one must utter this expression in order to not only refer to God’s might, but also as a request for God’s protection towards one’s wealth, fortune, and achievements, and to help preserve them from downfall or destruction. It is believed that not saying this expression implies that God’s might is not recognized and thus the duration of achievements and fortune will be cut down. Yet, similarly to other religious expressions in Arabic, Masha’Allah has also seen a pragmatic shift across different dialects of Arabic. It presents various illocutionary meanings depending on the context.
The researchers in this study found that “Masha’Allah” is indeed a multidimensional speech act and can hold various pragmatic functions. The first use they discuss is the prototypical use. It is uttered when observing valuable things, such as wealth, achievements, beauty or family size. This is due to the Islamic and Arab societal belief in the “evil eye”. The second use identified was a compliment intensifier when a speaker comments on another person’s attributes. By saying masha’Allah, the praise given is of high value as it is attributed to God’s protection from the evil eye. Furthermore, the statement alone can be used as an exclamatory compliment instead of mumtaz or jayid. The researchers also discuss that masha’Allah can be used as a marker of modesty when one is asked about health and/or family. Lastly, it is used to mitigate an expression of dissatisfaction, to backchannel and show interest in a conversation, and to express sarcasm.
Mughazy, M. A. (1999). Pragmatics of the Evil Eye in Egyptian Arabic. ERIC. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED432921
While phrases like mashaallah can mitigate the widely-held belief in the threat of the evil eye, the absence of such mitigation can constitute a serious face threat. This study looked at various strategies people used to respond to evil-eye-threatening compliments in Egyptian Arabic, according to gender and social distance. This was done through a series of role play scenarios conducted in an interview format. Participants used a variety of face-saving and face-threatening strategies. Complaining about the object was the most common strategy (34%). Complimenting the speaker back occurred in 12.6% of instances. 10.2% evaded the compliment. 23% replied with humor. 9.5% replied with face threatening strategies, such as confronting the speaker about their evil-eye threat, or reciting a religious formula against them. Only females responded by rephrasing the compliment with the correct mitigatory phrase.
